List of Contents
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List of Contents
Plagiarism can be overt and intentional (downloading a paper from the Internet and turning it in as your
own, for example) or it can be the unintended result of sloppy research, poor paraphrasing, and inaccurate
citations. The tips in this handout are designed to help writers avoid unintentional plagiarism by offering
guidelines on accurate quoting, effective paraphrasing, and correct citation of research material.
If you have any questions about the proper use of sources in your essays, please visit the
Writing Center in Ferguson 113, or call us for an appointment at 594-7684. Bring in your original
source material and your essay, and we'll help you compare them to our guidelines.
I. Plagiarism is using someone else's ideas or words without properly crediting their source. It's
important to avoid plagiarism because ideas are considered to be intellectual property; presenting someone
else's ideas as your own is tantamount to theft, and the law treats it as such. The following acts are
considered plagiarism:
failing to enclose borrowed language in quotation marks
failing to put summaries and paraphrases in your own words
failing to cite the source of quotations and borrowed ideas (even when you have successfully
paraphrased or summarized them)
II. To avoid unintentional plagiarism, remember to:
Document every original idea taken from a source, whether you quote, paraphrase, or summarize it.
If you use someone else's material and don't give the author credit, it's plagiarism!!
Enclose all material taken word-for-word from a source in quotation marks. If you omit the marks,
you are falsely claiming the language as your own.
Acknowledge the borrowed material by introducing it with a signal phrase that names the authority;
this indicates where the borrowed material begins.
According to Sun Tzu, "For to win one hundred victories in one hundred battles is not the acme of
skill. To subdue the enemy without fighting is the acme of skill" (76).
Paraphrase and summarize in your own style and language.
No: Winning one hundred victories in one hundred skirmishes isn't the epitome of skill. To tame
the enemy without fighting is the epitome of skill (Sun Tzu 76).
Yes: According to Sun Tzu, winning every battle is not the best mark of military effectiveness;
the most successful army is the one that does not even need to fight (76).
Give specific, in-text documentation for each quoted, paraphrased, and summarized item.
Provide a bibliographic entry on your Works Cited page for every source cited in the paper. A
citation for our example in Modern Language Association style would look like this:
Tzu, Sun. The Art of War. Trans. Samuel B. Griffith. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1963.
Follow this general rule when working with quoted, paraphrased and summarized material:
introduce it, present it, credit it.
III. Quote sources accurately and surround material drawn directly from the source in quotation marks.
Cite the source in parentheses.
Use signal phrases to indicate who is speaking rather than dropping the quotation into the text
without warning. Verbs like acknowledges, admits, asserts, argues, claims, confirms, disputes,
insists, observes, reasons, refutes, responds, suggests, thinks, writes, combined with the name
of the authority and his or her brief title are good choices for your introductory phrase.
Try to vary the type of signal phrase to add variety to your presentation.
Quote with signal phrase:
Writers often struggle with their work. Author J.B. Priestly admitted,
"Most writers enjoy two periods of happiness-when a glorious idea has come to mind, and when a
last page has been written" (9).
Use square brackets [ ] to indicate any alterations that you make to the quotation to make it fit your
sentence and use bracketed ellipses [. . .] (in MLA style; in APA style, omit the brackets) to
indicate you have omitted words that appeared in the original.
According to Sun Tzu, "For to win one hundred victories [ . . . ] is not the acme of skill. To subdue
the enemy without fighting is the acme of skill" (76).
III. Paraphrase and summarize sources carefully, and cite the source in parenthesis. Borrow words
sparingly from the original source (usually no more than two), and try to vary your sentence's structure
from that of the original. Some steps to follow in paraphrasing:
Decide which key words (no more than 2-the fewer the better) you must keep, and find synonyms
for others
Change the order of ideas in the passage and alter sentence patterns from the original
Compare your paraphrase to the original to make sure you haven't borrowed too much original
language or structure
Cite your source
IV. Review: Do the following acts constitute plagiarism?
What if I paraphrase or summarize, but I don't cite the source?
What if I paraphrase, cite the source, but use a lot of the original author's words and don't
put them in quotation marks?
What if I use a quotation and cite it, but don't put it in quotation marks?
What if I use a quotation, put it in quotation marks, but don't cite it?
Cohesion Handout
COHESION: CONNECTING THE KNOWN TO THE NEW
One can read a coherent paragraph much easier than one that is not unified. The sentences in a coherent paragraph 'stick' together; they are interwoven or flow into each other and are easily read as a unit and not as an assortment of separate sentences. Sentence cohesion can be improved by strengthening the ties between the known information and the new.
Normally, the sentence's known information is in its first half, and its new information is in its second half. This type of 'known-new' sentence, which is sometimes referred to as the "known-new contract," increases the paragraph's cohesion and helps the reader feel as if he or she is on familiar ground at all times. Also, repeating key words and their variations, like pronouns (words used in place of nouns) and synonyms (words with similar meanings),in your paragraphs helps to strengthen coherence.
Notice in the following example how each of the developmental sentences starts out with known information, then adds new:
TOPIC (MAIN IDEA)
The film director's desire for a more flexible and mobile instrument that would enable the camera to move freely about the set led to more sophisticated machinery.
DEVELOPMENT (SPECIFIC INSTANCES)
1. One such device is the crab dolly, a steel cart mounted on heavy pneumatic tires.
2. This type of dolly can be steered noiselessly and abruptly and contains a pedestal upon which the camera is placed.
3. The pedestal can be raised and lowered during the shot.
(Adapted from Dean Memering's and Frank O'Hare's THE WRITER'S WORK: GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION. 1st ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1980. Lee R. Bobker's Elements of Film.)
Back to the introduction.
Colons: Not as Hard as You Thought
Below are listed several of the ways that you can use a colon.
1. The colon may be used to explain the phrase that it follows.
Ex. He was a mean man, but for a good reason: the protection of his identity.
Notice how the phrase after the colon explains what the "good reason" is.
2. The colon may be used to draw attention to a series or list.
Ex. There were three kinds of people that Hamlet didn't like: liars, thieves, and
murderers.
Notice how the sentence before the colon can stand alone without the information stated after the colon. In a list sentence, you must have a thought that makes sense by itself in front of the colon. Below is an example of a misplaced colon.
Ex. Three kinds of people that Hamlet didn't like were: liars, thieves, and murderers.
This colon isn't needed because the phrase before the colon wouldn't make any sense if it was alone.
3. The colon may be used to direct attention to a quotation.
Ex. The great philosopher, Paul Marquez, coined a proverb that is relevant to
today's society: "Before one offers to clean
his neighbor's house, he must first
clean his own."
A complete thought is necessary before the colon in this instance as well.
4. The colon can be used to separate figures in time references.
Ex. At 3:15 he came home.
When used with time, the colon separates the hours from the minutes.
5. The colon can be used to separate figures in biblical references.
Ex. The quote was from Ephesians 2:8.
When used with scripture, the colon separates the chapter from the verse. One may also use a period in place of the colon for scriptural references.
Adapted from:
Hodges, John C., et al. Harbrace College Handbook. San Diego: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, 1990.
Back to the introduction.
The Golden Rule of Comma Usage: Add commas in the logical places.
There is nothing more frustrating to a reader than having to interpret a writer's sentence.
The message must be clear, flowing from word to word. To this end, we offer the following rules for comma use.
1) When using and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet between two or more independent clauses--word groups that could stand alone as separate sentences--a comma must precede the coordinating conjunction.
Example: Nearly everyone has heard of love at first sight, but I fell in love at first
dance.
2) Use a comma after a long introductory word group (more than 3 or 4 words).
Example: Near a small stream at the bottom of the canyon, we discovered
an abandoned shelter.
3) Use a comma after all items in a series.
Example: A few of my favorite things are chewing gum, butterflies, big
willowy trees, and Mom.
4) When two or more adjectives each modify a noun separately and are not joined by "and,"
they are coordinate, and a comma must be used between them.
Example: Mother has become a strong, confident, independent woman.
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Writing Consultation Summary
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your appointment and give it to the consultant. Thanks!
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To the consultant: Complete the following information, including the comment block, regarding your session with this student.
The student came to the Writing Center with:
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____ Early draft ____ Mid-level draft ____ Journal entry
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form, letter, etc. ____ Notes
The student and I worked on the following:
Global Writing Tasks Editing Tasks
Response to assignment ____ Word choice ____
Focusing thesis ____ Sentences ____
Paragraph structure ____ Grammar ____
Organization ____ Punctuation ____
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Effective Beginnings
The beginning of your paper is one of its most important parts. How do you grab the reader's attention? You, as the writer, need to have a hook that will quickly catch the reader's attention.
Here is a list of possible hooks:
* a startling statistic or unusual fact
* a vivid example
* a quotation or bit of dialogue
* an analogy
* a definition
* a paradoxical statement
* a joke or anecdote
(from Diana Hacker's A Writer's Reference)
Below are examples to show you how each item in the list above can work with similar paper topics.
**A startling statistic or unusual fact can often "scare" the reader into reading your paper, or at least interest him or her in reading further.
Ex. An estimated one million abortions take place every year.
**The writer may relate a vivid example which may interest the reader in reading the rest of the paper.
Ex. Jill did not know what to do. She never believed that a girl could get
pregnant on her first time. What is she going to do? She is fifteen years old
and on the cheerleading squad at school. Although she had never thought
about abortion before, Jill may now have no other choice.
**A quotation or bit of dialogue may remind the reader of a similar conversation, provoking him or her to read your paper.
Ex. "A woman has the right to choose what to do with her body. Period."
Admiral Stockdale, Vice Presidential Debate.
**A question immediately causes the reader to think and wonder how you, the writer, will answer it.
Ex. Have you ever thought about having an abortion?
**An analogy draws a comparison between items that appear to have little in common.
Ex. Some people believe that a baby comes into existence when it is conceived; to
them, abortion is murder.
**Although its frequent use should be avoided, a definition will clearly state what your paper will say.
Ex. Webster's defines abortion as "induced termination of pregnancy before the fetus can survive."
**A paradoxical statement is a statement which seems opposed to common sense or contradicts itself, but is perhaps true. (Webster's Dictionary)
Ex. Abortion is a form of birth control.
**A joke or an anecdote will draw your reader into your paper by appealing to his or her sense of humor. An anecdote is an interesting or humorous story about something that really happened.
As you can see, there are many ways to hook your reader. An effective beginning will most likely draw the reader into your paper. Of course, it is then up to you to maintain the reader's interest.
Back to the introduction.
Eliminating Wordiness, Avoiding Repetition, & Clarifying Your Writing Style
The following handout will present you with ways of eliminating wordiness, avoiding repetition, and clarifying your writing style.
1. Eliminate excessive words and phrases
Wordy: There are numerous ways to go about implementing the initial book report.
Revised: There are many ways to do the first book report.
Wordy: I think that at the present time it would be good to go back over the issues in the event that the audience may want to ask questions.
Revised: Now is a good time to re-cap the issues in case the audience wants to ask questions.
Note: Often the sentence will need to be re-written in order to make it clearer.
Here is a list of some lengthy phrases and their more concise synonyms
Lengthy Phrases More Concise
as a matter of fact in fact
due to the fact that because
for the purpose of for
in the nature of like
in order to to
in spite of the fact that although
in the event that if
in the neighborhood of about
2. Avoiding Redundancies and Repetition
Redundant: We still haven't been in close proximity with each other yet.
Revised: We haven't been close with each other yet.
*Note: "Close proximity" are two words that mean the same thing; only one word is needed.
Repetitive: Critical care nurses require steady nerves to care for patients who are critically ill.
Revised: Critical care nurses require steady nerves to care for patients.
3. Eliminating Words that are Useless to the Sentence Meaning.
Wordy: There is something that we need to get off our chest.
Revised: We need to get this off our chests.
4. Avoid Unnecessary Words within Sentence Structures.
Paragraph full of Wordiness:
In these troubled financial times, one is likely to find adults returning to their family domiciles to cohabitate with their parents. After attaining degrees from institutions of higher learning, many offspring return to their home areas to find gainful employment to save money by sharing the family dwelling. The money they save they often invest in automobiles, stereos, and haberdashery. Some save money to allow them to invest later in living quarters of their own or save money for a rainy day.
Revised:
In a recession, many adults return to live with their parents. After earning degrees from colleges and universities, many students return home to find a job and save money by living at home. The money they save they spend on cars, stereos and clothing. Some save money to allow them to invest later in living quarters of their own or for emergencies.
*Remember: After writing a sentence, look at it and ask yourself if every word is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. If you can make it more concise without changing its meaning, do so. Happy hunting!
Sources: A Writer's Reference (Second Edition), Diana Hacker. Writing with a Purpose (Ninth Edition), Joseph F. Trimmer & James N. McCrimmon.
Back to the introduction.
A General Guide for Writing History Research Papers
GOAL To use your knowledge of a particular subject to develop a particular thesis or main point. Your paper should analyze and describe a particular topic that relates to your class, then take a stand and make assertions about the topic. To do this you must introduce the thesis, support it, and draw conclusions about it.
ORGANIZATION Before writing, you should gather information and quotations that will support your thesis. Once gathered, organize your research materials into an outline. To do this, you should:
1. Write down your thesis.
Example: Though the American Constitution was one of the most important documents written in American history, it was directly influenced by only a few of its writers.
2. Identify the main evidence which will illustrate or support your thesis.
Example: The three most important writers of the Constitution were Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and Benjamin Franklin.
3. Identify your primary evidence which will explain or support your main evidence.
Example: Hamilton contributed the concept of a centralized government. Madison contributed the Virginia Plan which established a national legislature. Benjamin Franklin chaired the committee which produced "The Great Compromise."
4. Identify the elements of supporting evidence which will explain, or add to, your primary evidence.
Example: Madison provided the Virginia Plan which called for a number of things.
The number of delegates for the lower house would be decided by the size of the state's population.
The members of the upper house would be elected by the members of the lower
House.
Begin writing your paper using your outline as your guide.
SAMPLE OUTLINE (This is only a portion of an outline)
Thesis: Though the American Constitution was one of the most important documents written in American history, it was directly influenced by only a few of its writers.
I. The three most important writers of the Constitution were Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and Benjamin Franklin (MAIN EVIDENCE).
A. Hamilton contributed the concept of a centralized government (PRIMARY
EVIDENCE).
B. Madison contributed the Virginia Plan, which established a national legislature
(PRIMARY EVIDENCE).
1. The number of delegates for the lower house would be decided by the size of the state's population
(SUPPORTING EVIDENCE).
2. The members of the upper house would be elected by the members of the lower house
(SUPPORTING EVIDENCE).
C. Franklin chaired the committee that produced "The Great Compromise" (PRIMARY EVIDENCE).
QUESTIONS YOU SHOULD ASK YOURSELF
Is my thesis clearly stated?
Is my thesis supported by sufficient evidence?
Is my evidence clear, accurate, and recent?
Is my evidence documented correctly?
Is the entire paper carefully organized?
Is my paper balanced with an introduction, body, and conclusion?
Remember: If necessary, you can seek assistance in The Writing Center.
(Adapted from Jules R. Benjamin's A Student's Guide to History. 6th ed. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994, and Mary L. Kelley's Understanding and Answering Essay Questions. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1994)
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FUSED (RUN-ON) SENTENCES AND COMMA SPLICES
The FUSED OR RUN-ON SENTENCE consists of two independent clauses (or two complete sentences) that are improperly brought together.
EXAMPLES:
a) The day was dreary we thought it would snow.
b) We built a snowman however he melted.
The COMMA SPLICE consists of two independent clauses (or two complete sentences) that are improperly separated by a comma alone.
EXAMPLES:
a) The day was dreary, we thought it would snow.
b) We built a snowman, however he melted.
HOW TO CORRECT FUSED SENTENCES AND COMMA SPLICES
1) Separate the clauses into two independent clauses by using a period. This rule is best applied when the two clauses sound better broken down into two sentences versus one.
EXAMPLES:
a) The clouds were dark. We thought it would snow.
b) We built a snowman. He melted very quickly.
c) We built a snowman. However, he melted.
***the first example in (b) sounds and flows better than the second example.
2) Connect the clauses or sentences by using a comma plus a coordinating conjunction, such as and, but, or, so, etc. Sentences are most often connected in this manner when the clauses (or sentences) are closely related.
EXAMPLES:
a) The clouds were dark, so we thought it would snow.
b) We built a snowman, but he melted.
3) Separate the clauses or sentences with a semicolon.
EXAMPLES:
a) The clouds were dark; we thought it would rain.
b) We built a snowman; he melted.
4) Separate the clauses or sentences with a semicolon and add a conjunctive adverb, such as therefore, however, etc.
EXAMPLES:
a) The clouds were dark; therefore, we thought it would rain.
b) We built a snowman; however, he melted.
5) Restructure the sentences so as to contain a dependent clause (an incomplete sentence) and an independent clause (a complete sentence).
EXAMPLES:
a) Because the clouds were dark, we thought it would snow.
b) The snowman that we built melted.
REFERENCES:
Tidewater Community College Writing Center.
Hacker, Diana. A Writer's Reference. New York: 1992.
Back to the introduction.
1. If two or more items in a sentence are parallel (that is, if the ideas are equal), they should be arranged in the same order. Single words should be balanced with single words, phrases with phrases, and clauses with clauses.
*A kiss can be a comma, a question mark, or an exclamation point.
--Mistinguett
*This novel is not to be tossed lightly aside, but to be hurled with great force.
--Dorothy Parker
*In matters of principal, stand like a rock; in matters of taste, swim with the current.
--Thomas Jefferson
2. Balance parallel ideas linked with coordinating conjunctions
(coordinating conjunctions are: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet)
POOR:
Theft, vandalism, and cheating can result in suspension or even being expelled from
school.
BETTER:
Theft, vandalism, and cheating can result in suspension or even expulsion from
school.
*****The revision balances the noun expulsion with the noun suspension*****
POOR:
Al is responsible for stocking merchandise, all in-store repairs, writing delivery
orders, and sales of computers.
BETTER:
Al is responsible for stocking merchandise, repairing items in the store, writing
delivery orders, and selling computers.
*****The revision uses -ing forms for all items in the series*****
POOR:
After assuring us that he was sober, Sam drove down the middle of the road, ran
one red light, and two stop signs.
BETTER:
After assuring us he was sober, Sam drove down the middle of the road, ran one red
stop light, and went through two stop signs.
*****Each item needs a verb: drove, ran, went through.
3. Balance parallel ideas linked with correlative conjunctions (either . . . or, neither . . . nor, not only . . .but also, both . . . and, whether . . .or). Make sure that the grammatical structure following the first half of the pair is the same as that following the second half.
POOR:
The shutters were not only too long but also were too wide.
BETTER:
The shutters were not only too long but also too wide.
*****The words too long follow not only; thus, too wide should follow but also.*****
POOR:
I was advised either to change my flight or take a train.
BETTER:
I was advised either to change my flight or to take a train.
*****To change my flight, which follows either, should be balanced with to take
a train, which follows or.*****
4. Balance comparisons linked with than or as; the elements being compared should appear in parallel grammatical structure.
POOR:
It is easier to speak in abstractions than grounding one's thoughts in reality.
BETTER:
It is easier to speak in abstractions than to ground one's thoughts in reality.
*****The infinitive form to speak matches the
infinitive form to ground in the revision.*****
POOR:
Mother could not persuade me that giving is as much a joy as to receive.
BETTER:
Mother could not persuade me that giving is as much a joy as receiving.
*****Giving is an -ing form; the word it is being compared to must be an -ing form *****
NOTE* ALL COMPARISONS SHOULD ALSO BE LOGICAL AND COMPLETE.
Tips to remember:
-Parallel structure makes a sentence more coherent.
-When a sentence does not have a parallel structure, it is more confusing to the reader.
-Parallelism stresses the similarity within a sentence as well as between sentences.
(Adapted from Diana Hacker's A Writer's Reference. 2nd ed. Boston: Bedford Books of St Martin's Press, 1992).
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Dangling Modifiers
The word "modify" means to describe or change, so a modifier describes or "changes" the subject to which it refers. While a modifier may be a single word, such as an adverb or an adjective, a phrase may also be a modifier.
When a modifier is placed so that it appears to modify the wrong word, it is called a misplaced or dangling modifier. The most common type of mistake is a verbal phrase at the beginning of a sentence that seems to modify the wrong subject. This mistake is often confusing, and sometimes even humorous.
Consider the following example of a dangling modifier:
Unclear: While running across the yard, the leaves got stuck between my toes.
In the above sentence, the action phrase "running across the yard" unintentionally suggests that the leaves are running. Clearer versions of the sentence would be:
Clear: While I was running across the yard, the leaves got stuck between my toes.
-OR-
Clear: While running across the yard, I got leaves stuck between my toes.
By directly stating the person or thing doing the action in the introductory phrase or immediately after the phrase, the writer can avoid confusing and amusing the reader with dangling modifiers.
Sample Exercises
How would you clarify the following sentences to avoid dangling modifiers?
1) Eating dinner, the dog jumped up on my lap and spilled my glass of milk.
2) Holding the letter in my hand, my anticipation grew.
3) Reaching up to give my grandmother a hug, my button caught her earring.
4) Scrubbing the kitchen floor, my knees got soaking wet.
5) Driving down the street, a cat dashed in front of my car.
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Outline Guidelines in Preparation for Paper*
One: General Information. Informal outlines are like organized lists. A formal outline follows a pattern of content and format. Your outline is to be a formal outline. The best outlines (yours will be the best) begin with a thesis statement: for example, People who live in Hampton Roads can reduce the destructive, life-threatening potential for themselves and their families by being well-prepared long before a hurricane is predicted to make landfall in their area. This preparation should include plans to deal with a failure of all means of electronic communication. Similarly, your outline will end with a concluding paragraph (or paragraphs.) A thumbnail guideline: tell them what you are going to tell them, tell them, tell them what you told them. Back to the introduction.
Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns -(he, she, it, they,
me, him, her, you, them, we.)
The noun the pronoun replaces or refers to is known as the pronoun's
anticedent.
1. Make pronoun references clear!
Unclear: Lisa told Rachel that she had scored a run. (who scored a run?)
Clear: Lisa told Rachel, "I scored a run!" (Lisa scored the run.)
Unclear: James eyed the cherry on the cake and then ate it. (James ate what?)
Clear: James eyed the cherry on the cake and then ate the cherry. (James ate
the cherry.)
2. Make pronouns and subjects agree in number-
Antecedents that are singular should employ pronouns that are singular:
*The nurse finished her rounds.
Antecedents that are plural should employ pronouns that are plural:
*The nurses finished their rounds.
Compound antecedents joined by "and" are plural:
*Scott and Jim went to the beach, where they hoped to meet girls.
For compound antecedents joined by "or" or "nor," make the pronoun agree with
the closer antecedent:
*Neither Susan nor her friends could make up their mind.
3. Personal pronouns should be used in their proper place.
Subjective pronouns are pronouns that function as the subject of the sentence. Subjective pronouns usually come at the beginning of the sentence.
Subject: Jane and she went to the movies.
Objective pronouns are pronouns that function as the object of the sentence. Objective pronouns usually come towards the end of the sentence.
Object: I saw her.
Sources: Faulkner, Claude W. Writing Good Sentences
(Third Revised Ed.)
Hacker, Diane. A Writer's Reference (Second Ed.)
Back to the introduction.
As you construct essays for various courses, it may help you to use any one of the following strategies or combination of strategies. In fact, most essays will employ several of these patterns. For instance, an essay that argues the secondary school system in the United States is generally inadequate might begin by explaining what "education" is, then move into a comparison of certain high school experiences with a set of "ideal" experiences, and follow all of this with an analysis of the effects of this kind of high school experience on the current generation of college students.
All essays will require evidence to support their claims; this evidence may be obtained from a variety of sources: consider employing observation (sensory detail--how things appear, how they smell, how they sound, how they feel, how they taste), experience (certainly your own experience is admissible in certain circumstances as evidence), and research ("facts," statistics, examples, statements by authorities) as you develop your points.
Organizational Patterns
Basic thesis and support: Used for a wide variety of writings, especially when your essay is explaining a position. Questions posed by this strategy generally include "how" or "what" questions--"How did x happen?" "How does x work?" "What does x mean?" A thesis (main point) is supported by a series of topic sentences that directly connect to the thesis; topic sentences generally head each paragraph and are in turn supported by a variety of evidence (statistics, figures, quick examples, narrative examples, statements by authorities). In outline form, this essay looks like this:
Thesis
I. Topic sentence II. Topic sentence
A. Sub-point A. Sub-point
1. Evidence 1. Evidence
2. Evidence 2. Evidence
B. Sub-point B. Sub-point
1. Evidence 1. Evidence
2. Evidence 2. Evidence
Comparison/Contrast: An important organizational strategy if your essay is trying to evaluate something; for instance, you may be comparing two articles or ideas, or you may be evaluating one by comparing it to a standard you have established. Questions this type of organization answers include, "What is the quality of x?" "Which is better, x or y?" There are two ways to organize comparison/contrast. Note in the following patterns that apples are always compared with apples--if we discuss international, national, and local coverage in relation to one newspaper, we can't discuss comics, advice columns, and sports in relation to the other--we would no longer have a valid comparison.
Thesis: The Daily Press provides more comprehensive news coverage than the Virginian Pilot.
I. Daily Press II. Virginian Pilot
A. International coverage Repeat the same structure,
1. Evidence making sure you include strong
2. Evidence transitions (comparisons to the
B. National coverage Daily Press) at each
1. Evidence major point. This is a "block"
2. Evidence organizational pattern.
--OR--
I. International coverage II. National coverage
A. Daily Press A. Daily Press
1. Evidence 1. Evidence
2. Evidence 2. Evidence
B. Virginian Pilot B. Virginian Pilot
This pattern is often called a "point by point" pattern; it also requires you to employ strong transitions (comparison statements) at each major point.
Cause and Effect: This strategy allows for in-depth analysis of a given issue. Questions answered within this organizational pattern include, "Why did x happen?" "What will the result(s) of x be?" This pattern may focus solely on causes, on effects, or on a combination of both.
Argumentation: This pattern provides a format for taking a stand on a given issue. Effective arguments clearly state their claim, provide supporting evidence for their position (examples, statistics, statements by authorities), and acknowledge and refute opposing views. Here are some possible organization patterns:
Thesis -OR- Thesis
I. First major point supporting my position I. My first point (evidence)
A. Sub-point II. My second point (evidence)
1. Evidence III. My third point (evidence)
2. Evidence IV. What opponents say
B. What opponents may argue on this point V. My answers to these arguments
1. My answer to this argument
2. My answer to this argument
Back to the introduction.
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consultation
Structural Variety
Independent clauses contain a subject and a verb and makes a complete statement.
Sentences contain at least one independent clause.
**The guns rumbled. **The people wept.
Conjunctive adverbs mark independent clauses and may be used to join independent clauses (they're great transition words!). The most common conjunctive adverbs are:
as a result, consequently, finally, first, for example, for instance, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, in fact, likewise, moreover, now, nevertheless, similarly, still, therefore, thus, unfortunately.
There are three ways to join independent clauses with conjunctive adverbs (note the punctuation in these examples; independent clauses may NOT be joined with only a comma).
The guns rumbled; therefore, the people wept. IC; CA, IC
The guns rumbled. Therefore, the people wept. IC. CA, IC
The guns rumbled; the people, therefore, wept. IC; ½ IC, CA, ½ IC
Dependent clauses make an incomplete statement and cannot stand alone as a sentence. Dependent clauses must be connected to independent clauses to avoid sentence fragments.
**Example: Although the guns rumbled . . . .
Subordinating conjunctions mark dependent clauses; two independent clauses may be combined for variety by turning one of them into a dependent clause (achieve the transformation by adding a subordinating conjunction to one of the independent clauses). The most common subordinating conjunctions are:
after, although, as, because, before, even though, if, since, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, whether, which, while, who, whom, whose.
**Because the guns rumbled, the people wept. DC, IC (if the dependent clause
comes first, use a comma)
**The people wept because the guns rumbled. IC, DC (if the independent clause
comes first, no comma is needed)
To achieve structural variety, independent clauses may also be transformed into
nominal phrases (these can become the subjects of a sentence).
**That something is milking 78 Holsteins every day.
**Milking 78 Holsteins every day is a big job. [the second sentence is transformed into the subject of the first]
Adjectival phrases: Adjectives modify nouns and provide additional information about a noun already in the sentence (beautiful blue pool). Words like that, who, whom, which, where, when, and why can be used to create adjectival phrases out of independent clauses; they may also be edited out of the construction. Adjectival phrases need to placed immediately next to the nouns they modify.
**Example:Marvin had definite ideas concerning in-flight meals. He lectured the attendant on the skimpiness of ours.
**Marvin, who had definite ideas concerning in-flight meals, lectured the attendant on the skimpiness of ours.
**Having definite ideas concerning in-flight meals, Marvin lectured the attendant on the skimpiness of ours.
**Marvin, having definite ideas concerning in-flight meals, lectured the attendant on the skimpiness of ours.
Adverbial Phrases: Adverbs modify verbs and other modifiers (run quickly; speak slowly), answering questions like when, where, why, how, and how much. Subordinating conjunctions create adverbial phrases-see above examples.
1. Combine the following independent clauses with conjunctive adverbs and coordinating conjunctions (and, or, nor, for, but, so, yet) to achieve sentence variety.
Inexperienced writers believe in inspiration. Professional writers believe in hard work.
2. Combine the following independent clauses with subordinating conjunctions (adverbial clauses) to achieve sentence variety and appropriate emphasis. Put the least important idea in the subordinate clause.
Howard Head invented the oversized tennis racket. He wanted more power in his tennis game. This was in 1976.
3. Combine the following independent clauses by creating nominal (noun) or adjectival phrases to achieve sentence variety:
Federal, state, and local governments spent money. They spent $8, 921 per person. This was in 1990. The figure is approximate.
4. Combine the following independent clauses using a variety of techniques (conjunctive adverbs, subordinating conjunctions, nominal or adjectival phrases, parallel constructions) to create interesting sentences:
In June 1995 IBM made a bold move. The company planned a hostile takeover. They planned to take over Lotus Development Corporation. Lotus had things IBM wanted. Lotus had a successful spreadsheet program. But one thing was better. Lotus had Notes. Notes is a groupware program. It allows networked workers to share data. It is the most successful program in this area. It is used by hundreds of companies. It has 1.6 million licensed users. To get Notes IBM took a chance. The gamble may prove worthwhile.
Examples taken from Joe Glaser, Understanding Style: Practical Ways to Improve Your Writing. Oxford, 1999.
Back to the introduction.
Article Usage for ESL Students
The English words a, an, and the are articles. They are used to modify, or mark, nouns. The proper use of articles with any single noun will depend upon how that noun is used in the sentence. So, in order to decide on the appropriate use of articles, you must make three distinctions about noun use:
1. Is the noun being used as a general noun, or as a specific noun?
2. Is the noun countable or uncountable (sometimes referred to as noncountable)?
3. Is the noun singular or plural?
Deciding Between General and Specific
General nouns are used in a sentence to refer to a whole category, not a specific item.
In these sentences, the underlined nouns are general:
--All living creatures need water. (The sentence refers to all water, not to
some specific body of water.)
--My sister is afraid of spiders. (All spiders scare her, not any specific spider,
or group of spiders.)
--Every student in the class has a book. (Again, the sentence is talking about
a group of books, not one specific book.)
Specific nouns are used in a sentence to refer to a particular item or group of items, and not to a category.
In these sentences, the underlined nouns are specific:
--Please hand me the water. (The sentence refers to one specific container
of water.)
--The spiders we handled were not poisonous. (The sentence is talking
about a few specific spiders, not spiders as a general category.)
--Every student in the class read the book that was assigned. (We know which
book the students have read, so it is specific rather than general.)
In choosing between general and specific, it may help to know the situations that can make a noun specific:
1. A superlative adjective (biggest, fastest, oldest) or ordinal adjective (first, second, last) comes before a specific noun.
--The fastest runner was disqualified for drug use. (The superlative "fastest" makes the noun specific.)
--The first answer was correct. (The ordinal "first" makes
the noun specific.)
2. A phrase or clause follows the noun and identifies it.
--The trust of a patient for a doctor is important in medicine. (The underlined phrase
makes the noun trust become specific.)
3. When a general noun is mentioned in a earlier passage, it becomes specific when
referred to thereafter.
--Esteban approached the choice of a major
by rating each subject from one to five on the following questions:
How much do I enjoy the work in the major? What job opportunities exist for new
graduates in the major?
(The first mention if the noun is general, but each reference after the first
is specific.)
4. Lastly, the noun is specific if it names something unique, such as the sun, the past,
or the champion.
Deciding between Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Countable nouns are nouns which refer to things that can be counted, such as books, shoes, or students.
Uncountable nouns refer to things that are not usually broken down into units and counted, such as love, sugar, or honesty. These nouns are usually abstract in nature.
However, as always, the way the noun is used in the sentence will make a difference, since many nouns can be either countable or uncountable in different situations.
For instance,
--Love is a powerful emotion. (Love here is uncountable.)
--Writing is the love of my life. (Love here is countable. For example, I have other loves,
but writing is the most important)
Rules for Article Use
Once these distinctions are made, four simple rules will help you use articles correctly:
1. If the noun is general and uncountable, no article marks the noun.
2. If the noun is general, countable, and plural, no article marks the noun.
3. If the noun is general, countable, and singular, the noun is marked by a or an. (a if the noun
begins with a consonant, and if the noun begins with a vowel.)
(Note: If a noun is general, countable, and singular, you often will be able to
substitute the word any for the word a or an.)
4. Specific nouns are preceded by the.
(Note: If a noun is specific, you often will be able to substitute the
word that for the word the.)
So, if you are able to choose successfully between general/specific and countable/uncountable, the rules given here will guide you to correct article in most cases. However, English can be a tricky language, so the rules will not always apply. As such, the only way to completely master article use is to read and listen to English as often as possible.
Other Nouns
In addition, some nouns fall outside of these rules but can still be treated consistently. The following rules will help you to handle some of these exceptional nouns.
Most place names, such as America or China, do not require an article. However, the exception to this rule is plural or collective place names, such as The United States or The United Kingdom, which require the article the.
The following types of nouns also require the article the:
--land masses, bodies of water, and geographic regions, such as the Baja Peninsula,
the Atlantic Ocean, or the prairie.
--team or family names, such as the Johnson's, or the New England Patriots.
--public groups, institutions, or facilities, such as the Senate, the Sheraton Hotel,
or the Catholic Church.
--newspapers, such as The New York Times.
--nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of", such as "the president
of the club".
Back to the introduction.
Verbs show action or a state of being. Verbs, however, are more than just words.
They determine whether or not a sentence is effective. A verb has the power to give
a sentence life or to kill the sentence.
Precise Verbs
Use specific, one-word verbs to replace tired, overused verbs (ex. say, go, move etc. ) and
multi-word verbs (turn down, look into, look up, give in etc.)
1. Try single word synonyms to convey the same meaning.
Ex. The legislature turned down the governor's compromise proposal.
Revision: The legislature rejected the governor's compromise proposal
Ex. The police are looking into the evidence.
Revision: The police are analyzing the evidence.
2. Avoid the overuse of forms of to be.
You may be surprised to see how many times you use one of the these words (am, is, was,
were, have been, is being, might be etc.) in a paragraph as your main verb. More than two
or three of these words may mean that you need to revise.
Ex. The cost of the trip will be between $800 and $900.
Revision: The trip will cost between $800 and $900.
Ex. The flower is pretty, and it is in bloom.
Revision: The pretty flower blossomed.
Back to the introduction.
Interpretive Strategies for Writing about Literature
New Criticism/Formalist Interpretations: These kinds of readings emphasize the unity of a text, and examine such elements as plot, character, point of view, setting, symbol, style and tone. The formalist critic argues that each of these elements works to produce the text's theme, and believes there is only one correct interpretation of any given text.
Making it work (pre-writing):
* Identify relevant details from the text in the above categories (char, setting, etc.)
* What tensions/oppositions/complexities seem to be present in the text?
* Is there an idea that seems to unify/resolve these tensions?
Writing:
* Construct a thesis that identifies the text's unifying idea (its theme).
* Group textual details that support this unifying idea under the major elements listed above:
e.g., character, point of view, setting, symbol, etc.
Contextual Strategies: These methods of reading believe that important information exists outside the text, and that knowing this information may help us to better understand what we are reading.
Biographical Criticism tries to make direct connections between authors' lives and concerns and their works, although it does not insist that every work is autobiographical.
Historical Criticism explores the historical context of the work itself or its setting and uses this information to illuminate the issues of the text.
New Historicism assumes that history is not an objective reality, and often focuses on undermining conventional views of history/historical events. For instance, conventional historical criticism might argue that Faulkner's "A Rose For Emily" dramatizes the inevitability of the Old South's demise in the face of upheavals wrought by one final Northern invasion in the form of a modernizing, post-bellum society. A New Historicist might argue that the Old South destroys itself because of its inability to change.
Making it work:
* Determine the historical setting; investigate the author's biography/concerns/ politics
* Consider how this information helps us to understand the text. Or, if you're doing
New Historicism, consider how the text contradicts the usual historical or biographical
background information
* Consider other texts of the same time period (magazines, medical journals, popular fiction,
advertisements, journals, etc.--anything goes here) that might be related to the text
in question. Ask yourself: Is there an ideology at work in this system of texts?
Cultural Criticism: These kinds of readings bring certain ideologies to bear on the texts being studied. They include Marxist, Feminist, Mythological, and Psychoanalytic strategies.
Marxist readings are concerned with issues of power and consumption, and sees issues in terms of class struggles. The focus tends to be on injustice; one character's struggles might be read as the fight of an entire class against an oppressive economic system.
Making it work:
* Closely examine the text for details regarding power and/or economic relationships.
Who does the work? Who profits?
* Consider how a character/situation could be representative of an exploitative economic
or political system.
Feminist readings, like Marxist ones, are concerned with exploitation, but unlike Marxist readings, feminist strategies concern themselves with women and their roles. Feminist critics often focus their attentions in two areas: How women are depicted in texts (often by male writers) and how women write themselves.
Making it work:
* What role does sex/gender play in this work?
* What image of woman is depicted here?
* How are male/female relationships depicted?
Mythological interpretations of a text assume that the writer has included allusions to a controlling mythological framework in order to imbue his or her story with a larger significance by connecting it to the past and thereby revealing stabilizing, universal "truths." "Myth" here doesn't refer just to the stories of the Greek and Roman gods; it also includes other tales of cultural significance, such as the myth of Eden and the Fall of Man, the American Dream, etc.
Making it work:
* Identify textual clues that suggest an operative myth (remember to keep in mind a broad
definition of the term).
* Consider how the writer may have used this myth to order/make sense of the experience related.
Has it been used to illuminate the present moment? To represent a flawed societal ideology?
To construct or recover a national identity?
* What message is conveyed by the use of myth in the text?
Psychoanalytic theories of a text are interested in human thinking and human behavior. They are often concerned with what has been repressed by the author, characters, or by other readers. Often, these readings will employ Freud's theories of sexuality and of the unconscious; e.g., that we are all sexual beings (even children) who submerge and repress our "unacceptable" desires, and that our conscious mind is influenced by our unconscious desires. Freud likened writing to dreaming, and suggested that both activities allow the fulfillment of our suppressed fears and desires.
Making it work:
* Ask why--why do characters behave in a certain way and not in some other fashion?
Also look at what they don't do and what they don't say.
* Look for clues that feelings are being projected other places (Hemingway's landscapes
are great for this).
* Look for signs that a character is repressing feelings or desires; also look for a character/force
that may be dictating "proper" behavior (Miss Emily's father, or the town, for instance, in "A Rose").
* Look for sexual imagery--symbolic phalluses, etc.
Postcolonial theory is a fairly recent intervention (circa 1980) into the arena of literary analysis. Postcolonial criticism challenges the notion that literature contains "universal" or "timeless" values on the grounds that any such assertion is fallacious because such standards or values are necessarily the product of a specific culture/civilization, usually Western. Postcolonial critics reject this "universalizing" impulse (and they share this predilection with postmodernists) in the belief that it is based on the promulgation of "white, Eurocentric norms and practices," and maintain that this impulse also relegates all other value systems to "subsidary, marginalised roles" (Barry, Beginning Theory, 192). In other words, postcolonial critics assert that any argument for "universal values in literature" implies that whatever is Western is superior, and whatever is not is, by definition, inferior. Postcolonial critics concern themselves with revealing the implications of imposing the standards of an outside "civilization"-its values, language, history, religion, education-on a colonized population.
Specifically, postcolonial critics focus on the following (a partial list, to be sure):
* illustrating that non-Western peoples in literature are often represented as "Other"; that is,
presented as faceless, nameless masses, characterized by a singular identity (as opposed to
individual identities), exociticized, and/or represented as "immoral" or "savage."
* recovering a pre-colonial past for the colonized nation; Edward Said (Culture and Imperialism) notes that
the land is first reclaimed by native populations through the imagination. This question implicitly raises
the question of history-who writes it and how.
* examining the difficulties that language presents for the colonized subject. The issue is this: English has
become the predominant language in much of the world because of empire. How do (post)colonial
subjects represent their present and their past? What language should they use and what is the
significance of that choice?
* recovering a national identity. This issue is inextricable from the questions of language and history, above.
The (post)colonial subject inhabits a divided space ("native" culture vs. "colonized" culture),
and such division is often represented in literature as divided or doubled identity.
--Adapted from Lynn, Texts and Contexts and Barry, Beginning Theory
Back to the introduction.
Introducing a quote is an important part of writing a research paper. Although the person you are quoting may be an expert, it is still your paper. Without introducing and explaining quotes, the paper is nothing more than a collection of other people's ideas. By introducing quotes you help the paper flow more smoothly. You also keep your sense of style and control over the paper. In addition, after introducing and giving the quote, don't forget to explain how it fits into your paper.
Here are some examples from Diana Hacker's A Writer's Reference (217-218):
DROPPED QUOTATION (no introduction):
Although the bald eagle is still listed as an endangered species, its ever-increasing population is very encouraging. "The bald eagle seems to have stabilized its population, at the very least, almost everywhere" (96)
QUOTATION WITH SIGNAL PHRASE (with an introduction):
Although the bald eagle is still listed as an endangered species, its ever-increasing population is very encouraging. According to ornithologist Jay Sheppard, "The bald eagle seems to have stabilized its population, at the very least, almost everywhere" (96).
Below is a list from A Writer's Reference of some signal phrases you could use to introduce a quote. Be sure to think about which phrase will be most helpful for the type of paper you are writing. (Is the quote arguing a point, stating a fact, describing something, stating a belief, drawing a conclusion, or doing something else?)
(Hacker 218)
acknowledges comments endorses reasons
adds compares
grants refutes
admits confirms illustrates rejects
agrees contends implies reports
argues declares insists responds
asserts denies notes suggests
believes disputes observes thinks
claims emphasizes points out writes
In the words of Herbert Tarrace, "..."
As Flora Davis has noted, "..."
The Gardeners, Washoe's trainers, point out that, "..."
"…," claims linguist Noam Chomsky.
Psychologist H.S. Terrace offers an argument for this view: "..."
Terrace answers these objections with the following analysis: "..."
1) INTRODUCE the quote to help the paper flow smoothly.
2) GIVE the quote.
3) EXPLAIN the quote so your reader understands why it is important.
Hacker, Diana. A Writer's Reference. 2nd ed. Boston: Bedford Books, 1992.
Back to the introduction.
When to use quotation marks:
1. Quotation marks should be placed around a person's exact spoken or written words.
Example: "A foolish consistency is the hoboglin of little minds," wrote Ralph Waldo Emerson (Hacker 165).
2. Quotation marks should be placed around the titles of newspaper and magazine articles, poems, short stories, songs, episodes of television and radio programs, and chapters or subdivisions of books (Hacker 167).
3. Single quotation marks should be used with a quote within a quote. Example: "Tell him to begin his story with 'Once upon a time…' to catch their attention," the writer said wryly (Mills 329).
Notes on Quotes
1. Do not use quotation marks around quotes of prose or poetry that are more than four typed lines. Rather, indent the quote 10 spaces.
2. Do not forget to begin a new paragraph when changing speakers in dialogue.
Example: "Mom, may I go to the store?"
" Yes, you may."
3. Do not place quotation marks around slang or cliches.
4. Do not place quotation marks around the title of your own essay (Hacker 170).
Punctuation and Quotation
1. Place periods and commas inside quotation marks.
Example: "This is a stick - up," said the well - dressed young couple. "We want all your money." (Hacker 168)
2. Place colons and semicolons outside of quotation marks.
Example: Harold wrote, "I regret that I am unable to attend the fundraiser for AIDS research"; his letter, however, contained a substantial contribution. (Hacker 168)
3. Place question marks and exclamation points inside quotation marks unless they apply to the sentence as a whole. (Hacker 168)
Example: "Why is the sky blue?" his son asked. (Wiener 270)
Example: Have you heard the proverb, "Do not climb the hill until you
reach it"? (Hacker 168)
**If you have any questions about quotation marks, do not hesitate to come to the Writing Center for help.**
Works Consulted
Hacker, Diana. A Writer's Reference Boston: St. Martin's Press, 1992.
Mills, Helen. Commanding Essays. Glenview: Scott. Foresman and Company, 1982.
Wiener, Harvey S. Creating Compositions. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1984.
Back to the introduction.
Short Guide to Turabian Documentation
Prepared by T. P. Bostick
FOOTNOTES
See Turabian, 175-77, for a list of footnote and bibliography examples which are found on pp. 177-228.
TURABIAN: PURPOSE OF FOOTNOTES
1. to cite authority for facts, opinions and quotations.
2. to cross reference other sections of the paper.
3. to amplify or explain material in the text.
9.0 4. to make acknowledgements.
9.6,9 The footnote number should be superscripted at the end of the text material to which it refers. Note number is superscripted after any punctuation (except dash). If notes are placed at the bottom of the page, a two-inch line (or a line from margin to margin) should be typed on the first line following text. Two lines below that, you should indent five spaces, superscript the footnote number and type the footnote. You may also type the notes on a separate page at the end of the paper, with the heading FOOTNOTES at the top of that page. (On typing footnotes, see: Turabian, 13:16-26).
9.18 Titles of journals, dictionaries, may be abbreviated (without periods) like: AHR DNB or OED.
9.23 BOOK information order: Author-Title-editor (compiler or translator)-author of preface (intro. Or foreward)-number or name of edition-name of series with vol. No. in series-(place:publisher, date of pub.)pages.
9.24 CHAPTER IN BOOK information order:Author-Title of chapter-"in" title of book-facts of publication-page numbers.
9.25 AUTHOR: name in normal word order. Use initials only if author commonly does so (T.S. Eliot). If author's name is not on title page but is learned from other source, place it in brackets. If two or three authors, list all in normal word order. If more than three, use first author and et al. (note that et al. Is not underlined but always has a period after al. Omit titles, degrees, etc.
9.36-.38 TITLE: underline title and subtitle. If subtitle is distinguished only by type size or page placement, separate it from title with a colon.
9.43-.47 EDITION: indicate numbered, reprint, paper or named editions.
9.50 PUBLICATION FACTS: (London: Hogarth Press, 1964)
BIBILICAL, CLASSICAL AND MEDIEVAL WORKS omit all facts of publication; legal works and some public documents omit all but date; for dictionaries., and encyclopedias. Atlases omit all but edition and date.
9.51-.55 PLACE-identify state or country only if not obvious. Use English name for foreign cities (Vienna instead of Wien). Follow with colon if publisher is named, with comma if only date follows.
9.0 PUBLISHING AGENCY: Omit "The" "Inc." "Ltd." "Co." May also shorten names like "W.W. Norton" to "Norton." Do not translate parts of names of foreign publishers.
9.66-.68 DATE: use date on title page or on copyright page. If more than one date on copyright page, use latest one. If date determined from one source other than book, place it in brackets. If no date is available, write "n.d."
9.69 PAGES: use "p." or "pp." Only when necessary to avoid confusion. Cite only specific pages used in periodical article, rather than entire article (unless reference is to article as a whole). Avoid using (80 f, 188f); instead cite (60-61, 88-92).
9.73-.82 MULTIVOLUME WORKS: Include total number of vols. If vols. issued in different years, ref. to the work as a whole must include inclusive dates. (see pp. 139-140 for examples)
9.83-.88 JOURNALS AND PERIODICALS: Author, "Title of Article," Name of periodical vol. or issue no. (date): pages. Note series information (if any) right after periodical title.
Ex. G.M. Moraes, "St. Francis Xavier, Apostolic Nuncio, 1542-52," Journal of Bombay Branch of Royal Asiatic Society, n.s. 26 (1950): 279-313.
9.89-.95 MAGAZINES AND NEWSPAPERS: For news magazines and similar publications, ignore any volume or issue numbers and cite by title, date and page. For English-language newspapers, drop "The" from titles. Do not do so for foreign titles, like Le Monde. Turabian suggests citing The Times of London as Times (London), but virtually all British and European historians cite it as: The Times and distinguish it from other "Times" by noting the cities in which they are published: New York Times, Bombay Times.
9.96 Articles in Encyclopedias and Dictionaries
9.97 Novels, Plays, Poems
9.101 Reviews
9.102 Interviews
9.103- 9.111 Greek and Latin Classics
9.112 Medieval Works
9.113 Scriptural References
9.114 Unpublished Material
9.115 Speeches
9.116 - 9.118 Legal Citations
9.121 - 9.128 Other unusual materials
9.119 - 9.120 MICROFORMS: cited much like books. But printed materials are filmed only for preservation (such as newspapers), the source may be cited as in its original published version without reference to its being in microfilm.
9.129 CITATION FROM SECONDARY SOURCE: If focus is on the work cited (or quoted) in secondary work, that work should be cited first following by "quoted (cited) in" and the secondary work afterwards. If focus is on the secondary author's citing of another work, the secondary work should be cited first, followed by "citing," followed by the work cited.
9.130-9.132 SECOND OR SUBSEQUENT REFERENCES: use short titles instead of "op. cit." or "loc. cit." "ibid." (in the same place) may be used if a work was cited in the immediately preceding reference.
********************************************************************************
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
In bibliographies, the author's last name is listed first to assist in alphabetizing the entries. Also note differences in punctuation.
Sample Footnote and Bibliography Citations
(First footnote citation)
1Jasper Ridley, Statesman and Saint: Cardinal Wolsey, Sir Thomas More and the Politics of Henry VIII (New York: Viking Press, 1982), 72.
(Second and later short title citation)
Ridley, Statesman and Saint, 72.
(Bibliographical citation)
Ridley, Jasper. Statesman and Saint: Cardinal Wolsey, Sir Thomas More and the Politics of Henry VIII. New York: Viking Press, 1982.
(Note the reversal of first and last names between footnote and bibliographical entries, the punctuation changes in publication information, and the fact that only one space follows commas, periods and colons.)
Articles in scholarly journals-see 9.83-88; examples 11:39-11:40): (note that page numbers in note refer only to those pages cited but that bibliography entry includes total pages of the article.
Note: Steve J. Stern, "Feudalism, Capitalism, and the World-System in the Perspective of Latin America and the Caribbean," American Historical Review 93 (October 1988): 841-46.
(Volume numbers are in arabic numerals one space following the journal title (do not use "vol"); next is the date of the issue in parentheses followed by a colon and the actual page or pages cited in the footnote. Do not use the "p." or "pp." before the page numbers if a volume number is also cited.
(Second and later citation)
Stern, "Feudalism, Capitalism," 844-45.
bib: Stern, Steve J. "Feudalism, Capitalism, and the World-System in the Perspective of Latin America and the Caribbean." American Historical Review 93 (October 1988): 829-872.
(In the bibliography, the date (in parentheses) is followed by a colon and the pages of the entire article in the bibliography.)
(citation of letter from printed primary source. For examples of unpublished letters, see-9.114 and 11.53.)
4Palmerston to Lady Cowper, 2 January 1832, The Lieven-Palmerston Correspondence,
1828-1856, ed. Lord Sudley (London: John Murray, 1943), 31.
(Note the order of information in the note: names of correspondents, date, title of work containing the letter, editor, publication information, and page number.)
Sudley, Lord. ed. The Lieven-Palmerston Correspondence, 1828-1856. London: John Murray, 1943.
(Biblical citation does not contain information on specific letters cited.)
Back to the introduction.
The Correct Use of That & Which
THAT and WHICH have several different functions within a sentence, but, in general, they are words used to introduce information in a sentence. One of the most common problems which occur with the use of THAT and WHICH concern their addition and deletion. Another problem concerns the use of THAT with essential information and the use of WHICH with non-essential information.
1. THAT MAY BE DELETED IF THERE IS NO DANGER OF MISREADING
WITHOUT IT.
**EXAMPLE: I told Ed [that] I would be late.
**EXPLANATION: That can be deleted because the meaning is clear without it. This rule usually applies when that introduces additional information or a subordinate clause.
2.THAT IS NEEDED IF THERE IS A DANGER OF MISREADING WITHOUT
IT.
**EXAMPLE: As Joe began to prepare dinner, he discovered that the oven wasn't working properly.
**EXPLANATION: Joe didn't discover the oven; he discovered that the oven wasn't working properly.
3.WHICH IS USED TO ADD NON-ESSENTIAL INFORMATION TO A
SENTENCE.
**EXAMPLES: Ed's country house, which is located on thirteen acres, was completely furnished with bats in the rafters and mice in the kitchen.
**EXPLANATION: Since the phrase "is located on thirteen acres" is not essential to the meaning of the sentence, which is used.
If the phrase with which was placed at the end of the sentence, there would be a
comma placed before it.
**Example: Chelsea likes Dalmations, which are white with black spots.
NOTE: Commas are used around or before this type of clause because the absence of the information would not change the main meaning of the sentence. (For more help, look up non-restrictive clauses and relative pronouns in a handbook.)
4. THAT IS USED TO ADD ESSENTIAL INFORMATION TO THE MEANING OF THE SENTENCE.
**EXAMPLE: For camp the children needed clothes that were washable.
**EXPLANATION: The clause "that were washable" is essential to tell what type of clothes the children needed; therefore, that is needed at the beginning of the clause.
**EXAMPLE: The corporation that hired my husband was hurt by recent budget cuts.
**EXPLANATION: The clause "that hired my husband" is essential to identify which corporation.
NOTE: Clauses that add vital information to a sentence do not need to be set off by commas. (For more help, read about restrictive clauses.)
5. THAT AND WHICH ARE NOT USED TO REFER TO PERSONS; INSTEAD, USE WHO OR WHOM.
**EXAMPLES: The fat man, who is my friend, died today.
Ex-fans wondered how and old man who walked with a limp could play football.
**EXPLANATION: In these examples, who must be used because these passages are about specific humans.
6. THAT OR WHICH MAY BE USED TO REFER TO A GROUP OR CLASS OF PEOPLE.
**EXAMPLES: The team that scores the most points in this game will win the tournament.
The Talking Heads, which broke up last year, is my favorite band.
**EXPLANATION: It is acceptable to refer to groups of people with that and which, but it is impolite to use that or which to refer to individuals.
When he heard about my child who lived at home, Gill smiled and said, "I would love to be a parent."
Final Note: IF you would like more help with your writing, please come by the CNU Writing Center or make an appointment.
Reference: Hacker, Diana and Wanda Van Goor. 2nd ed. Bedford Basics: A Workbook for Writers. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press, 1994.
Back to the introduction.
A sentence fragment is a word group that is punctuated as if it were a complete sentence (an independent clause), but it does not have both a subject and a verb, and it does not express a complete thought. To have a complete sentence (an independent clause), you must have a subject and a verb in a sentence that can stand alone.
SENTENCE FRAGMENT: A teenager driving the car.
COMPLETE SENTENCE: We saw a teenager driving the car.
Following the three rules inside the boxes will help you to avoid sentence fragments:
(1) AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE (COMPLETE SENTENCE) MUST HAVE A VERB.
To find out if you have a sentence verb, check to see if the verb
changes form to show
present tense (see), past tense (saw), or future tense (will see).
Present tense: We see a teenager driving the car.
Past tense: We saw a teenager driving the car.
Future tense: We will see a teenager driving the car.
NOTE: In this sentence, "driving" is not the sentence verb because it cannot change its form to show tense (present, past or future). "Driving" cannot be the sentence verb by itself. For "driving" to be the sentence verb, it must be accompanied by another verb form that does change to show tense:
Present tense: is driving
Past tense: was driving
Future tense: will be driving
SENTENCE FRAGMENT: A teenager driving the car.
COMPLETE SENTENCE: A teenager was driving the car.
(2) AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE (COMPLETE SENTENCE) MUST HAVE A SUBJECT.
To find out if your sentence has a subject, ask who or what is doing the
action of the sentence verb.
sentence verb: saw
We saw a teenager driving the car.
subject (doing the action of the verb): We
We saw a teenager driving the car.
EXCEPTION:
The subject can be "you," understood, as in a command.
example: Turn in the test. (You, understood)
(3) AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE (COMPLETE SENTENCE) MUST NOT BEGIN WITH
A SUBORDINATING WORD.
To be a complete, independent thought, a sentence must not begin with a subordinating word.
A word group that begins with a subordinating word cannot stand alone. The Little Brown
Handbook lists the most common subordinating words:
after, because, in order that, than, when, although, before, once, that, whenever, as, even, if, rather, than, though, where as if, even though, since, unless, wherever, as though, if so, that, until, while.
1)SENTENCE FRAGMENT: If we saw a teenager driving the car.
2)COMPLETE SENTENCE: We saw a teenager driving the car.
3)EXCEPTION: It is all right for a word group to begin with a subordinating word if it is introducing another group of words that is an independent clause (complete sentence).
1)Example:
When we looked outside, we saw a teenager driving the car.
(subordinate clause)
2)REMEMBER: An independent clause (complete sentence) has a subject, a verb, and does not begin with a subordinate word.
Back to the introduction.
Thesis Statements and Brainstorming
Characteristics of a Strong Thesis Statement
A strong thesis statement (the controlling point of your paper) is specific, concrete, and narrowly focused.
Consider the following pairs of thesis statements. Which ones seem like good choices to you? Why? Try to come up with a few characteristics of strong thesis statements based on your choices.
The first polygraph was developed by Dr. John Larson in 1921.
Because the polygraph has not been proved reliable, even under the most controlled conditions, its use by private employers should be banned.
Many drugs are now being used successfully to treat mental illnesses.
Despite its risks and side effects, Prozac is an effective treatment for depression.
Many of the songs played on WXYZ are disgusting.
Of the songs played on station WXYZ, all too many depict sex crudely, sanction the beating of women, or foster gang violence.
How do these potential thesis statements measure up? Rewrite them if necessary.
· Many people are engaged in the debate over education.
· The role of the humanities in education is a divisive issue.
· Education can be a mixed bag; it doesn't always provide what we think it will.
Preparing to Write: Answer each question in a short paragraph
1. What is my purpose/point in writing? What sub-points could I create to help me prove my position?
2. What writers can I use to help me, ones I either agree or disagree with? (two are required for this paper!).
3. What experiences have I had that I could use in developing my point?
4. What other research could I do?
Back to the introduction.
The sentences in a coherent paragraph flow into each other and are easily read as a unit. On the other hand, when a paragraph lacks unity, its sentences seem to be an assortment of unrelated sentences. One way to maintain coherence, or unity, is by using transitional words and phrases; these help show the relationship between sentences. In addition to coordinating conjunctions and, but, or, yet, for, nor and so, there are also many other descriptive transitional words that can help clarify your work. Use them in order to accurately express your thoughts in your paragraphs.
1)To show similarity:
likewise, similarly, moreover
2)To show differences or contrast:
but, however, still, yet, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, in contrast
3)To show addition:
moreover, and, in addition, equally important, next, first, second, third,
again, also, too, besides, furthermore
4)To show time and process:
soon, in the meantime, afterward, later, meanwhile, while, earlier,
finally, simultaneously, next, the next step
5)To show direction:
here, there, over there, beyond, nearby, opposite, under, above,
to the left, to the right, in the distance
6)To announce an end:
in conclusion, to summarize, finally, on the whole
7)To indicate a result:
therefore, then, as a result, consequently, accordingly, thus, thereupon
Back to the introduction.
Many words in the English language are confusing. They sound the same but have many different meanings. The following examples and advice will help you overcome problems caused by these troublesome words.
Their/There/They're
1) "Their" expresses possession (ownership)
Example: Their car is not running at the moment.
2) "There" describes a place and sometimes something in that place.
Example: We are moving there next month.
3) "They're" is the contraction of "they are."
Example: They're not coming to class today = They are not coming to class today.
*The most important thing to know is that these words cannot be used in place of each other; each one means something totally different.
Example: Are there any more pictures like the one they're displaying in their frame?
To/Too/Two
1) "To" is sometimes used in an infinitive form, which means it works with the present form of a verb.
Example: It is very common for him to solve problems in that way.
1.1 "To" is also a preposition, which means it expresses a relationship between a noun, pronoun, or idea in the sentence.
Example: I am not going to the movies tonight.
2) "Too" is a part of speech that expresses "more than is necessary". It can mean "also" as well. "Too" also expresses a degree or level of something.
Examples:
Too many of your shots missed the basket.
I am too angry to drive.
I am going, too.
3) "Two" is the spelling out of 2.
Example: The two of us went to the market.
These three words mean very different things and cannot be used in place of each other.
Example: The two boys went to the store, too.
Your/ You're
1) "Your" expresses possession.
Example: Your mother is looking for you.
2) "You're" is the contraction of "you are."
Example: You're beginning to understand the rules of the language.
Its/It's
1) "Its" expresses possession by a person, place, thing, idea, animal, quality, or action.
Examples:
Each group waits its turn.
Each area has its own conference room.
2) "It's" is the contraction of "it is" or "it has."
Examples:
It's my turn next.
It's hard to understand the difference between "its" and "it's."
*Hint: If the sentence could be read as "it is…," then the contraction form can be used.
Contractions
The apostrophe marks the absence of letters.
Examples:
1. didn't - did not
2. he'll - he will
3. they're - they are or they were
4. there's - there is or there has
5. she'd - she would or she had
6. class of '00 - class of 2000
7. who's - who is
**Examples from Harbrace College Handbook. 1st edition
Back to the introduction.
Back to the introduction.
The verb is one of the most important parts of any sentence you may write. Each verb has three principal parts: the present, past and past participle. All six tenses, the present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect and future perfect, are formed from these three parts. Below are examples of each verb tense and its conjugation (how it agrees with a noun) to help you understand the verb tenses and their purposes.
Present Tense
The present tense expresses action which is happening now.
Singular Plural
I find We find
You find You find
He/She/It finds They find
Ex. Usually, I find answers to the questions within the story.
Past Tense
The past tense expresses action which is completed at a particular time in the past.
Singular Plural
I found We found
You found You found
He found They found
Ex. In September, I found a four-leaf clover.
Future Tense
The future tense expresses action which will take place in the future.
Singular Plural
I shall/will find We shall/will find
You will find You will find
She will find They will find
Ex. You will find your hall pass.
Present Perfect
The present perfect tense expresses action which began in the past but continues in the present or is completed at the present.
Singular Plural
I have found We have found
You have found You have found
She has found They have found
Ex. We have found many ways to play this game.
Past Perfect
The past perfect tense expresses action which began in the past and was completed in the past.
Singular Plural
I had found We had found
You had found You had found
She had found They had found
Ex. The boy had found his keys but lost them again.
Future Perfect
The future perfect tense expresses action which will begin in the future and be completed by a specific time in the future.
Singular Plural
I shall/will have found We shall/will have found
You will have found You will have found
She will have found They will have found
Ex. By this time next year, I shall have found my book.
Avoiding Verb Tense Shifts
I. Tense shifts occur when a verb switches from one tense to another without warning.
Ex. The bird eats a worm and then flew away.
In this sentence the verb tense "shifts" from present tense (eats) to past tense (flew). These tense shifts cause the reader to become confused or distracted.
The sentence should keep all of the action in the same tense:
Ex. The bird eats a worm and then flies away.
--or--
The bird ate a worm and then flew away.
II. When writing about literature:
A. The general rule is to stay in the present tense.
Verbs
Present Tense Past Tense
writes/write wrote
am/is/are writing was/were writing
has/have written had written
has/have been writing had been writing
B. Even past action can be told in the present tense.
Ex.: Kate knows the truth. She has known it for two to three weeks, but she has waited for him to speak.
The construction of has/have with the past participles known and C. Also use the present tense when referring to an author, even if he/she is dead.
Ex. "Poe writes..." or "Chopin uses symbolism..."
NOT "Poe wrote..." or "Chopin used symbolism..."
Back to the introduction.
It's not unusual to encounter WRITER'S BLOCK at some point in your college career. You have an assignment, you know the due date is coming, but your hand just won't cooperate by picking up the pencil or punching the keyboard. You may not even be able to come up with a topic about which to write. These techniques can help you get started:
BRAINSTORMING
1. Define the problem. For example, do you need to decide on a topic for your term paper?
2. Set a time limit for brainstorming. Five or ten minutes would be ideal.
3. On a single sheet of paper, or on 3x5 cards, write down every topic or idea you can think of regardless of whether you think it is a good one.
4. Go back and see how many subtopics (ideas) you can think of to put under each topic. This will provide you with a narrowed topic and/or additional topics.
5. Having trouble selecting just one topic? Check the library for availability of research materials for each topic. This could help you make your decision.
FREEWRITING
1. Set a timer for 10 minutes. Continuously write your thoughts without lifting your pen from the paper.
2. Write whatever you're thinking. If you can't think of anything, just keep writing. "I can't think of anything I can't think of anything I can't think of absolutely anything absolutely nothing but how I am going to think of what to write I think I can it might be interesting to write about…"
3. Don't bother with punctuation or grammar. Write as fast as you can to keep up with your thoughts for the 10 minutes.
4. This method reduces inhibition and sets in motion a free flow of writing. You may be surprised by the results. Just try it.
GOAL SETTING
1. Decide on an exact time to begin writing.
2. Begin at that time. If you get something down on paper, it's a start. The next day it's much easier to resume work on a paper you have already started on than to pick up another blank sheet of paper.
3. Set a goal of writing a specific number of pages each day until you finish your term papers.
ADDITIONAL TIPS
HAVE A ROUTINE:
* Clear off your table.BR>
* Get a soda, iced water, or other favorite drink.
USE TRASH PAPER:
* Begin on a piece of scratch paper to free yourself from that intimidating, stark white blankness.
* Use the backside of an already graded assignment, preferably a good one.
SKIP THE INTRODUCTION:
* Begin writing the body of your rough draft.
* You will get an idea for the beginning paragraph as you research and write the middle paragraphs.
CLEAR YOUR CONSCIENCE:
* Keep a piece of paper handy and jot down any distracting thoughts that come up.
This will free your mind so you can return to the task at hand.
KEEP SUPPLIES HANDY:
* Save time by not having to go to another area for some more paper, pens, or pencils.
WRITE IT DOWN:
* Writing daily in a journal which no one will grade or read is a great way
to overcome writing inhibitions.
(written by Linda Pape)
Back to the introduction.
In some ways, everything you write is an argument--your writing attempts to persuade a reader that your view of a novel, a historical event, or a scientific experiment is valid. When we write formal arguments, however, some special advice may be useful. Getting started:
When professors ask you to write a literary analysis paper, they want you to learn something new about a text and communicate what you've learned to a reader. In short, they want you to explore and explain your ideas about what a particular text--or just a passage (depending on the assignment)--means. Your mission in such an essay is to go beyond what you've heard in class, to argue for an interpretation of the text in question, and to support your ideas with a close reading of the text. Getting Started: